Definitions Deconstructed

Trireme, Two Coxswains, and a Motorboat

S. G. Lacey

Strait of Salamis – September 480 BC:

The crew huddled tightly in the belly of this large ship is stoic and inert. This current posture serves several purposes. Conserving energy for the immense physical exertion which is pending. Maintaining silent stealth so their hidden floating position isn’t revealed. Offering up meditative prayer that the imminent battle will be fruitful.

Being housed deep within the hull of dense wood, no viewpoint to the outside world exists, besides through the small holes which each oar handle extends through. However, all these patient participants know many of their comrades, in similar vessels, are positioned adjacent, thereby creating a tidy line of warships.

Suddenly, the awaited command comes in; a shrill trumpet blast from the nearby shore, which is met almost immediately by raucous cheering from all the ship’s occupants. This verbal outburst is followed by shared physical activity, every soldier settling into position, and taking up their assigned wooden rod in both hands.

The next auditory contribution is meant to further unify this boat’s particular collective, rather than the fleet as a whole. The alternating tones of a dual reed flute, along with the monotonous thump of a bass drum, which each rower immediately matches their cadence to.

The first few strokes are slow and sluggish, with substantial effort required to overcome the inertia of the huge, stagnant vessel. However, once initial forward momentum is achieved, the pace of both paddle strokes, and thereby forward movement, quickens.

Soon, the 170 individuals manning the oars are toiling away at maximum output, working as a team. Completely blind in both distance and direction, they must rely on the steering and strategy execution of their compatriots topside; a group of a dozen experiences seafarers who dictate all operational elements of this large craft.

While slaving away at the oars, these hard-working men in the belly of this beast are not slaves. The contingent in the hold represents a broad cross-section of Athenian society. Labors, businessmen, farmers, even politicians. All walks of life are accepted in this righteous pursuit.

Comradery is further demonstrated by the rhythmic chant that the crew takes up, a spirited refrain in the native Greek tongue, which perfectly matches the rapid rowing cadence. This cheerful collective has no idea where they’re headed, but they might as well enjoy the journey.

The relentless pace of propulsion pushes the boats speed past 10 knots, which represents an impressive advancing impulse. With sails and other unnecessary items stashed on the shore prior to battle, the boat’s overall weight is reduced, thereby allowing maximum speed.

Suddenly, this huge amount of kinetic energy is transferred, causing the craft to jolt harshly and shudder violently. This near-stoppage is associated with a deafening crunch of wood timbers, followed by a sharp verbal outcry from surprised adversaries.

While stealthily hidden just below the water’s surface on approach, this warship’s primary armament is carefully crafted to be strong, aerodynamic, ornate, and most important, deadly. This solid chunk of bronze mounted to the prow represents the pinnacle of performance for blacksmiths of this age. The desired maritime target has been directly hit, and is hopefully mortally wounded.

This Greek trireme has achieved the goal it was design for; piercing the broadside of an enemy ship with the hulking metal ram.

Trireme = Ancient Greek or Roman galley or warship having three tiers of oars on each side. [REF]

This term is derived from Latin “trirēmis”, which means “with 3 banks of oars”, and the related Greek “triērēs”, which literally translates to “three-rower”. Hence, the format and mode of propulsion for this craft becomes pretty obvious.

The trireme was a subset of the “galley” classification, a broader collection of ships driven mainly by oars. It’s interesting that in modern lingo, this word also refers to a kitchen on a naval vessel, especially submarines.

Like most large, people-powered, craft of the day, the trireme design incorporated a long slender hull, with shallow draft, and low freeboard. Mast and sails were included on many triremes, but rowing was the primary propulsion mode, allowed uninhibited ocean navigation without relying on specific environmental conditions.

Triremes were used throughout the Mediterranean Sea by ancient maritime civilizations. Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans all employed this model, which was in prominence from 7th to 4th century BC.

The trireme was preceded by the penteconter, a basic warship with 25 oars on each side, and the bireme, of accepted Phoenician origin, which had a pair of rowing platforms. The culture who made the obvious leap to three levels is still debated by historians, with the Greeks holding the strongest claim.

This technological progression was inevitable, however future quant and quint versions exhibited diminishing returns, due to the logistical challenges of having that many oars moving at once, at an increasingly long distance from the water for those positioned on higher rowing stations.

The impressive functionality of triremes was a result of optimizing a very complex set of the design considerations.

The core functional goal was clear. Optimize the number of people that can be jammed into the hull, while still allowing sufficient range of motion for each to operate an internal handle, which must engage an oar in the ocean outside the boat. This turns out to be multi-faceted geometry problem.

Oar gearing, the ratio between outboard and inboard paddle length, was critical to performance. A higher value means more power, and a wider arc through the liquid medium, providing faster forward propulsion. Provided the operator was strong and speedy enough to maintain the required cadence.

Engineers eventually landed on the optimal format, with 3 rows of oarsmen on each side of the boat, all working at different heights above the waterline, and distances from the keel centerline. Considering all the different angles and forces being considered, translating ideal trireme design on paper to physical functionality in the actual ocean was quite a mathematical puzzle.

Coordinated rowing was critical, considering all the different stances, arcs, rods, and angles in play during operation. Oar openings were carefully placed just above the water level when the ship was fully loaded, allowing for optimal operator leverage. Still, when in position, over 2/3rds of rowers couldn’t even see their oar engage the water, making synchronization very difficult.

Also, different skills in terms of both muscles used and physical size were required for each discrete group. To denote this important specialization, the Greeks had specific terminology to identify each oarsman post on a trireme.

The dense packing of rowers did have an ancillary benefit of providing a low center of gravity, which offered increased ship stability. Inside the hull was undoubtably a warm, wet, wild environment in the heat of battle. [REF]

Impressively, like many boats of this age, construction was executed using mortise and tenon joints secured with dowel pins. The tools of the time, even in the hands of skilled carpenters, were only so precise.

As such, additional assembly measures had to be taken. Namely, allowing the dry wood used in the shipbuilding process to absorb water when initially floated. The bloating of these linked planks, combined with the tapered board geometry, resulted in sufficient surface pressure to generate a watertight seal.

Relying on the absorbent properties of natural flora made material selection important. Proficient trireme builders, understanding the unique needs of the various structural components, utilized fir, pine, cedar, and oak. Wood decisions were based on both required functionality and local availability.

Additional structural tension was generated on triremes in a more mechanically proactive, as opposed to naturally passive, means. The first vessel to use this shipbuilding innovation, tensioned cables, dubbed “hypozōmata” were rigged fore and aft as a means of reinforcing the hull.

Every element of trireme construction was fully optimized, for both structural integrity and intense speed. Therefore, these ships were not very durable. In fact, many seasoned craft had to be removed from the water each night to avoid becoming waterlogged, a beach dragging process with required 150 strong men.

While moisture absorption was key to initial floatation, over time this same liquid inundation causes an increasing risk of sinking failure.

Considering the complexity of raw material preparation, precise dimensional accuracy required, and large component assembly, over 6,000 hours of labor were needed to complete a single trireme vessel. This was not a fast, or cheap, operation, requiring huge military outlay in terms of both money and manpower.

One unique element of the Athenian trireme fleet was that many of the boats were paid for by wealthy citizens. Those who invested were understandable allowed to select their own crew, and apply their own branding elements.

Strong young lads, recruited from the local town where each owner’s business was prosperous. An ornate wooden statue in the prow, denoting the port of origin. Embroidered sails, more decorative for harbor departure plumage, than functional in the heat of battle

Most importantly, the iconic painted eye, on each side of the forward hull, each rendering subtly different, with all presentations very intimidating. As with many elements of ancient Greek life, especially with regards to the open seas, superstition and pleas for good luck were ever-present.

Appropriately, these influential ships were depicted on all manner of ancient cultural artwork, from pottery to coins to murals. Even more relevant, outstanding oarsmen were described by scholarly sages of the day, including Pliny the Elder and Diodorus of Scicily.

In this regard, building and outfitting a trireme could be considered one of the earliest forms of social media marketing.

The number of rowers, and effort put forth, dictated the rate of travel for triremes. A causal speed of 4 knots, with half the crew resting. A steady speed of 6 knots, the standard daily operational pace. An aggressive speed of 8 knots, representing full oar power. A top speed of 10 knots or more, a feverish cadence which could only be sustained for a very short period.

On a full 8-hour day of rowing, efficient triremes could travel upwards of 100 km, all other environmental challenges aside. These ships were designed primarily to execute short missions, so didn’t carry provisions for multi-day seafaring jaunts, thus the entire fatigued crew needed to come ashore each night. This situation resulted in substantial financial benefits for many small towns along the Mediterranean coast.

While early galley offerings were meant for aquatic transport of goods, by the time the trireme came into vogue, it was essentially optimized as a naval combat vessel. Alternate boat configurations were used to transport soldiers, horses, and provisions; with rowers reduced due to cargo space limitations, these trireme formats were much slower, and not fit for harsh battle.

There were two primary modes of attack for well-outfitted trireme warships.

The first was to bash into the side of an opponent, using the hefty underwater battering ram mounted of the front of each craft. Rather than a directly perpendicular impact, the optimal strategy was an angled piercing, aiming to open up a long gash along the length of the opponent’s hull. A sharper angle of attack required less impact speed, but resulted in a smaller area of damage.

An alternate strategy was to travel parallel to an enemy boat, either by overtaking them, or moving in the opposite direction. With their own paddles quickly drawn in, the goal was to get near enough to shear off the oars of the unknowing combatant simply through passing close by.

When attacks were executed effectively, the target vessel was rendered fully incapacitated, either via a gaping hole in the hull which resulted in sinking, or complete elimination of the craft’s primary means of propulsion.

Once incapacitated, aggressive boarding with hand-to-hand was initiated, the obvious goal being to take control of the upper deck, then slaughter the unarmed adversaries below.

Surprisingly, warship triremes only held 20 to 40 soldiers, a mix of hoplites equipped with spears and shields, who used the phalanx formation popular in this military era, and highly skilled archers, who were often recruited foreign mercenaries.

This lack of armed manpower was because too many people topside tended to make the boat unstable, so deck warfare need to be quick and strategic. Also, with the large hold filled with rowers for thrust, no additional human storage space was available.

Oarsman would come up from the hold to throw stones and fight with fists if their function was compromised, but these individuals were trained to be workers as opposed to warriors. This inefficient mode of historical naval battle was a stark contrast to today’s modern warfare, which employs low resource exposure, high potential damage, tactics.

The Battle of Salamis pitted the Hellenic League, a collection of Greek and Athenian forces, led by mastermind general Themisocles, against the invading Phoenician Army under King Xerxes of Persia.

At this time, things were looking grim for the Hellenes, as Xerxes had already sacked Athens, and forced his opponents to hurriedly escape to the sea.

This era was the pinnacle of trireme warship usage. In this contest, the Hellenes sported 300 such ships, half of which were Athenian. In contrast, the Phoenician armada was composed of over twice as many vessels. The numerical odds were stacked against the Greeks, so a clever naval plan was required to offer up even a chance for victory.

The Hellenic ships feinted a defeated retreat, hoping to lure the Phoenicians into the channel of Salamis, located west of Athens. King Xerxes took the bait, sending his Egyptian contingent around the cape to head off any potential exit, while the majority his fleet followed the fleeing foes.

As it turned out, this is just what Themisocles postulated would happen. When the Persian ships fully entered the narrowest section of the waterway, the trap was sprung.

The Athenian triremes on the left flank lead the attack, charging forward on powerful, synchronized oars. Their positioning put them perpendicular to the passing Phoenician vessels, providing perfect ramming orientation.

The hero of the battle, Greek Captain Armeinias, engaged a much larger Phoenician vessel, which was commanded by Admiral Ariamenes, Xerxes brother. The two ships became entangled, and the Greeks won a spirited scrum on the deck with much fewer soldiers.

This brave Athenian ship was then able to free itself before the Phoenician boat sank to the shallow bottom of the bay.

The leaderless Phoenicians became discombobulated, jumbled together trying to move in multiple directions within the slender strait. Hellenic League warships picked off each opposing craft individually, maneuverable triremes attacking from all sides.

In this overwhelming Greek victory, they lost only 40 triremes, while over 200 Phoenicians vessels were sunk. Also, most of the casualties were Persians, who were thrown into the water during the contest, and didn’t know how to swim.

The clear victory in adverse circumstances was a testament to the Athenian’s grasp of the trireme, from both a construction and execution standpoint. The lighter, faster crafts they brought to the Strait of Salamis allowed them to both outrace and outmaneuver their opponents.

This celebrated naval battle, which highlighted trireme technology in all its glory, was a critical result in military history. The Grecian victory prevented the Persian tyrant Xerxes from penetrating further into Europe, and spurred a golden era of peace and progress in Athens. [REF]

Phaleron Bay – April 1896 AD:

This weather is not pleasant. For any outdoor activities.

The rowing regatta was slated to start at 10 AM. It’s now well after noon, and there hasn’t been any actual rowing activity.

Both the single and double scull activities have already been postponed. Activity is a more apt term than race, since there was only one entrant for each of these events. In fact, the same German rower signed up to anchor both these teams. It seems silly to give all the medals to the same guy, especially if he doesn’t even have to race.

At least this upcoming contest is the first rowing event where there’s two combatants on the register. Provided any of them show up.

This is the premier event on the docket. Which is likely why it hasn’t already been postponed. Four powerful rowers with a single oar each. Plus, a slight teammate to keep them in line, from both a cadence and directional standpoint.

The planned race length, 4 kilometers, is quite a slog under optimal circumstances. Such calm, flat water, desirable for racing these slender boats, is not in the cards based on today’s inclement weather.

This circumferential bay at the bottom edge of Athens proper is usually sheltered. But not when the stormfront moves in directly from the south, atmospheric elements over the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas colliding with increasing volatility.

The power of these generated winds is absurd. The normally placid inlet is being trashed to a turbulence which resembles a boiling stew pot. Not exactly ideal conditions for a pair of delicate rowing skiffs which have pointy keels, narrow width, and thin hulls.

Elite athletes thrive off the buzz of a lively crowd, which enhances the innate excitement associated with any competitive pursuit. Unfortunately, the contest to date has been boring, and there are only a smattering of viewers remaining in the soggy stands.

The only reason anyone is still here is because the dueling combatants are both of Greek origin. Which guarantees a win for the host nation, provided everything can go off without a hitch.

The few fans are on their feet, not in excited anticipation, but because staying moving and mobile is the only way to keep warm in these harsh conditions. These excited patrons, many traveling from rural regions of the country, enduring the oft-jerky train, or even more arduous bumpy carriage, to attend this historic sporting pursuit.

This is not the moderate Mediterranean beach climate that Athens was hoping to portray on the global athletic stage.

As the participants prepare their boats, along the shoreline where a starting line has been established, the true challenges of this competition become evident. Just getting everyone aboard and ready to row is going to be quite a chore.

The umpires for the event are a group of 5 distinguished individuals in the political, business, and military realms for the host nation. Occupying an anchored craft along the coastline, this collective is responsible for initiating and monitoring the race. Considering the current harsh environ, they seem more interested in staying warm than organizing the operation. But the show must go on.

The more ambitious of the two Greek squads is the first to act, despite any lack of urgency from the officials. This must be an intimidation ploy. Their countrymen opponents, seemingly content of the soft but stable sand, simply watch the developing scene.

A quartet of muscular gentlemen climb aboard one of the rickety rides, and slowly take their assigned positions. This thrashing of massive bodies becomes increasingly difficult with each new entrant to the craft. Especially since the vessel is being stabilized by the clearly smallest, weakest teammate, the only one left standing on the sandy shore.

Colleagues loaded, with a verbal summons, the crew pushes off with their oars, while the spry leader jumps aboard. The coordination is impressive, and the racing rig transitions from land to sea, without anyone getting wet. Yet.

The former locale was rigid and firm. The new medium is fluid and dynamic. Which proves to cause the demise of this entire operation.

The slight character, situated in the back of the boat, prematurely assumes all is well, now that the boat, and its operators, are in their natural habitat. Standing proud, to his entire diminutive frame of just 1.65 meters, the error of his ways becomes evident almost immediately.

An impromptu gust, more powerful than any before, is the coup-de-grace. Briefly, the diminutive conductor is erect and empowered, his orchestral minions ready to heed his any instruction. Seconds later, the entire ensemble comes crashing down, a roiling wave knocking the lad down off his perch.

He leads his colleagues into the water, then resurfacing, immediately swims towards shore. His strongmen underlings can take care of the submerged boat. This coxswain is too small to provide any help on craft recovery efforts.

Coxswain = The person who steers a racing shell and calls out the rowing rhythm for the crew. [REF]

This odd character is inexorably tied to another mode of rowing transport which was prevalent in ancient Greece, Rome, and Egypt. While each culture used a different moniker for the important individual who called out the desired cadence on a wide variety of oar-powered watercraft, the end goal was the same. Keep the rowers aligned and working together.

This mandate was necessary for both burly businessmen and shackled slaves, two cohorts equally likely to be found in the belly of a galley at the time. Granted, one group required decidedly more encouragement to execute their exhausting assigned task than the other.

The modern coxswain terminology is so obscure and niche in usage that there’s not much known about the actual origin of the word.

A modified spelling of “coque”, of Old French derivation, is thought to be the prefix “cox” root, potentially related to a bygone boating term, specifically referencing a canoe. The odd spelling and sound similarities to a dominant male Parisian rooster branding have apparently been lost in translation.

In stark contrast to the absolute power wielded today, the “swain” portion stems from the Old Norse “sveinn”, a mildly demeaning word referring to a servant boy. The two disparate terms were not combined in this uniquely spelled way until the 14th century.

While odd in literal combination, the coxswain amalgamation perfectly captures the role of a specific individual, in a specific sport. Competitive rowing.

The history of rowing dates all the way back to 1000 BC. One needs only to look at the trireme, along with all proceeding floating vessels of similar ilk, to understand how relevant oar-based propulsion was to ancient civilizations as they got more mobile, and thus more confrontational.

However, it wasn’t until the 1850’s, in the modern biblical timeline, that rowing gained popularity as a sport. Ironically, this pursuit initially harkened back to the basic rowboat, of pirate parlance, used for both for looting and escape, which had been around for centuries.

The entire activity of rowing is differentiated from its cousin, paddling, by the means which the operator propels their craft.

Paddlers, of Native American fame, in both the Northern and Southern continents, deftly manipulated wooden paddles from a fixed sitting or kneeling stance in their dugout canoes, navigating the many winding rivers which personified their local terrain. In contrast, European rowers had their oars going through fixed points on the side of their plank-constructed boats, with a sliding bench seat allowing full range of motions when cruising the multitude of man-made metropolitan canals and harbors.

For crafts of the same mass, operated by individuals of identical strength, rowing is a much more efficient means of transport, due to higher forces that can be generated. Rowing allows one to use their entire body, including the powerful lower half, while paddling is primarily an arm-based exercise.

While coxswain is an odd word, in both origin and pronunciation, the rest of the competitive rowing lexicon doesn’t get any easier to follow.

As with many terms, the primary confusion stems from the same root word being used as both a noun and verb. “Scull”. Though identical in pronunciation, the context is not even tangentially related to the bone anatomy with which most English speakers associate the term. Though there is some argument to be made that both physical structures are hollow and strong, but that’s a stretch.

“Scull”, in rowing parlance, can refer the boat being used, the operator of the boat with “er” added, and the act of rowing said boat by adding the “ing” suffix. The plural “sculls” means not just multiple crafts of this type, but also the oars used to propel each craft. Confused yet?

The entire class of rowed racing rigs are referred to as shells. Therefore, all sculls are shells, but a shell doesn’t have to use sculls. This is starting to sound like a convoluted riddle.

Having established the equipment of interest, it’s now time to examine the events. From an athlete, and activity standpoint, the main distinction is between sculling and sweep rowing. Fundamentally, sculling uses two oars for each rower, while sweep rowing involves just single alternating oars being manipulated.

The more common term “crew” is generally used to refer to the entire sport of competitive rowing. Most universities in the U.S. utilize sweep rowing, with 8 participants being the pinnacle format, hence the omnipresent Crew Team collegiate moniker.

Again, nautical terms are confounding. “Crew” in most maritime parlance simply refers to the workers on a boat, which is tangentially relevant in this case. However, there’s a more specific connotation in professional rowing parlance, referencing both the pastime’s participants and the actual activity.

From a collaborative sense, the crew descriptor is quite apt. As a collective tasked with operating alternating oars in unison, absolute alignment and comradery is needed. Mistakes in nuclear submarines and Olympic rowing vessels can be equally detrimental from a career perspective. Though only one has a high likelihood for loss of life.

Due to the multiple oars and dynamic manipulation possible by operators with the scull technique, modern races typically don’t use a coxswain for these events. In contrast, the asymmetry of the sweep rowing style makes it much harder to keep the craft moving in a straight line. Hence the need for coxswains in this format, especially with larger boats, where aligned operator coordination is key.

Crew race lexicon now uses “coxless” or “coxed” to differentiate if a coxswain is part of the action. For coxless boats, one of the active participants simultaneously manipulates the rudder using foot pedals with cables attached.

The number of rowers is listed before the discipline in sculling, and after the discipline for sweep rowing. Thus, double sculls and coxless quad events both have 4 total oars for propulsion, with the later format using twice as many onboard participants. And no coxswain in either craft.

For the sweep rowing discipline, there’s a substantial amount of strategy regarding athlete placement within the boat. Dominant side is important for crew positioning since both arms are manipulating just one oar. Also, order of teammates dictates if one is leading or following the determined stroke cadence.

Thus, there are specific roles and responsibilities for each rower, specifically in larger races like 8-person event. [REF]

The coxswain typically sits or stands in the stern of the boat. This positioning makes them the only individual facing forward, allowing easy monitoring of all their rowing minions, while also having a clear sight line to the target destination.

An alternate coxswain position is lying down the stern to avoid increased wind resistance. However, this post is much less desirable from a visual assessment and leadership standpoint.

The coxswain, a seemingly lazy and expendable role, actually serves a multitude of important functions on a crew squad, many which extend far beyond the actual competition.

During the race, the primary coxswain function is to keep the rowing cadence of their ship as fast and consistent as possible. This is done through verbal commands, which can vary based on the water conditions, selected tactics, and athlete performance on a given day.

Race strategy is important, since going out too fast can cause the rowers to wear down before the finish line, while a slow start can create a separation distance impossible to close. Along with the coaches, the coxswain is responsible for knowing the current capabilities, and monitoring the warm-up activity, of opposing crews.

In the heat of the moment, with no communication link to the shore, the coxswain is empowered to make real time decisions which can influence the race’s outcome. Facing forward, in the direction of travel, while all rowers have their backs to the finish line, the coxswain is able to view and react to the entire scene based on this ideal viewing post.

Lastly, the coxswain serves as a key motivational presence in the locker room. This individual can be the important glue that holds a bunch of talented, yet disparate, athletes together. There are not many other physical team sports which incorporate an inert participant directly into the squad.

The act of rowing requires a very dynamic set of motions, using every major muscle group in the body. While raw power is important, efficient rowing also requires a wide range of motion, and a finely tuned sense of balance.

As such, diversity in training is key for rowers. A crew must be completely synchronized in their stroke to achieve optimal performance. Such physical alignment can be difficult with a diverse group of athletes, each having unique bodily characteristics.

Again, this is where the coxswain’s important role comes into play. Repetitive training as a group allows the team to find their stroke, which the coxswain must internalize, then extract from the participating rowers on race day.

As crew athletes and events have evolved over time, so has the boat technology. Modern shells have come a long way from the rickety wooden rowboats of yore.

Elite racing models are now made from lightweight, yet very strong, carbon and glass fiber composites, with oars also adopting this modern material technology. Lower end models are blow molded using reinforced plastic, similar in construction to the colorful kayaks which are often seen floating meandering rivers and strapped atop car roof racks these days.

Considering the small quantity of rowers involved in a crew race, the aerodynamics of the boat are critical. Obviously, weight reduction is key. However, minimalism can only go so far. If the vessel can’t maintain structural integrity when subjected to the various harsh forces, both internal from the human-powered engine, and external from the perpetual water pressure, catastrophe can ensue.

As a result, over the years, numerous engineering advancements have made crew boats lighter, stronger, and resultingly faster. Single sculls, with a lone, known, participant are the easiest to dial in.

The minute levers pulled to optimize boats for elite Olympic racers is impressive. The goal is to enhance aerodynamics, in terms of both water and wind. The less volume of water displaced, the easier the craft can slide forward through the dense medium. The lower the athlete sits in their ride, the less of their upper body is exposed to the air rushing by.

These two physical factors are linked, but not fully inversely related. Taking into account the mass of the boat’s occupant, and their unique rowing style, the hull cross section can be tweaked to provide just enough buoyancy to keep the craft afloat and stable as the racer propels it forward.

In the modern era of high-tech testing laboratories, and powerful computer simulation, all manner of novel boat shapes have been introduced. With a fixed craft length and width due to strict dimensional regulations in the professional realm, most innovations are occurring in the geometry space.

The primary variables are hull cross-section, ranging from bulbous to linear, and keel design, ranging from significantly curved to completely flat. Over the last century, pretty much every combination of contours has been explored, some with analytical justification, others completely on a whim.

While most normal boats must be able to execute a multitude of maneuvers, the direct, straight line, smooth water, format for crew races allows for specified craft optimization well beyond most other seafaring vessels. All this thin scull needs to do is keep the thick skull of its occupant floating for the prescribed race distance.

Rowing shell technology continues to evolve, with reduced weight and improved aerodynamics being the main areas of modern innovation. Plus, absurdly detailed training protocols for the athletes themselves, who are the most important piece of crew equipment. With Olympic races often decided by just a few hundreds of a second, any minute advantage can make a difference on the medal podium.

Ironically, the first Olympic rowing events were scheduled to occur at the Athens 1896 Games, a reboot of the original Grecian athletic challenges. Unfortunately, these crew contests got cancelled due to high winds, delaying the Olympic medal distribution by 4 years.

It wasn’t until Paris 1900 that the first Olympic rowing competitions were successfully executed. Even back then, the importance on the coxswain was quickly recognized.

For this original racing iteration, the coxswain was part of the 2-person sweep rowing event, which was held at a distance of 1,750 meters. It only took a few rounds for the savvy Dutch team to realize one important variable of a coxswain. Weight.

During the semifinals, this squad from the Netherlands used their coach, a 60 kg grown man, as their coxswain. While helpful from a communication and strategy standpoint, as they were able to win this heat, in the other semifinal they noticed the French team using a much smaller coxswain. Inspired, the coach took to the local streets during a break in the action, recruiting a Parisian boy weighing in at just 25 kg.

This change proved fortuitous, as in the finals, the Dutch were able to edge out the French squad, while keeping their stokes aligned, and their boat traveling relatively straight, using a rookie coxswain. These days, like a horse jockey, mass is a significant factor in coxswain selection.

Since that inaugural, albeit unsuccessful, Olympic experience at Athens 1896, the collection of rowing events for which medals are distributed has varied substantially. Also, the sport has branched out well beyond just the Olympics, to all manner of crew competitions, ranging from local to international.

In the rowing world, athletes are broken out by age. Under 19 is considered Junior, with Masters status achieved over 27 years of age. As with many endurance sports, which combine aerobic and anerobic exertion, rowers can have a pretty long career, with many achieving Olympic success well into their 30s.

There’s also a fairly modern lightweight category, with mass limits of 160 pounds for male and 130 pounds for female participants. No issues with any coxswains meeting these metrics.

Today, most official races are standardized at 2,000 meters, defined as the sprint distance. The course layout typically incorporates 6 – 8 individual lanes of equal width, with buoys every 500 meters. The venue must accommodate a completely straight course on flat water with minimal current. There are also point-to-point races up to 5 km along rivers, which required more navigational turning, but these are not part of the current Olympic slate.

In today’s modern iteration of the Olympics, the condensed cadence keeper only participates in the men’s and women’s eight sweep rowing disciplines. Despite limited opportunities, this typically slight individual still earns a medal with their stout colleagues, and the honored tradition of throwing the coxswain into the water upon victory still exists today. [REF]

Alimos Marina – August 2025 AD:

This facility, situated just south of central Athens, on the Saronic Gulf, is a prime location. That’s why almost all of the 1,100 berths here are occupied. And not by menial watercraft. This is a high-end, full-service, establishment.

The main draw of this locale, aside from direct access to the Mediterranean Sea, is the available amenities. If one was so inclined, they could remain fully functional and stocked entirely inside the cozy confines: mingling with other sophisticated boaters on the spacious docks, free daycare where children can be easily passed off, enlisting the maintenance staff for all manner of engine repairs, exercising at the several gym accommodations which provide complementary laundry service.

Plus, there are other, more discretionary, debatably legal, items, that can be procured, provided one knows the right contact. The underground barter system is making a comeback.

The renovation project which occurred here at Alimos over the past 5 years is truly transformational. What already started as the largest marina in the Balkans, is now the preeminent boat storage destination on the entirety of the Mediterranean coastline.

Sure, a few fancy islands, like Ibiza and Corfu, are more refined, but don’t provide nearly the same urban hub proximity as this establishment. Here, one of Europe’s most famous cities sits right the doorstep. Or dockstep, in this case.

There’s been a multitude of modernizing upgrades which were necessary to entice wealthy clientele. New premier dining and shopping venues. Smooth paved paths for walking, biking, and golf cart transport, with free rentals provided. Increased valet parking capacity for both trucks and trailers. This coastal community is returning Athens to all its ancient nautical glory.

The location of the Alimos Marina is tactical and efficient, conveniently just 30 minutes from both the major shipping port and international airport associated with Greece’s capital city. Easy in, and easy out, with no questions asked.

Innumerable additional benefits can be enjoyed for those who are a little more motivated. Going beachside, via a short stroll across the boardwalk, or an easy troll around the protective seawall, offers substantial optionality.

Eating at the multitude of local seafood restaurants. Perusing the handmade wares at quaint boutiques. Or just posting up at an accommodation tie-off, then exuding the affluent image which owning such a flashy boat demands.

Sure, downtown Athens is impressively historic, but often convenience trumps culture.

Still, these rich folks don’t pay the annual berthage, in addition to their large initial craft outlay, to hang out on land. These huge, extravagant, aquatic vessels are made to be use. One doesn’t need to travel far by water to reap the rewards a high roller deserves.

The shallow shoal, between land and sea, is where many fancy floaters thrive. Cruising out of the dock on low power, it’s easy to peruse the available opportunities for enticement. Decision made, it’s time to power down just outside the break, drop the anchor, then wait for the crowd to approach. Yachts of this quality, size, and of course, sophistication, tend to be attention grabbing.

But the true display of power, and performance, comes when these multi-engine crafts are tested on the open sea. At full power. By early afternoon, the bay is crisscrossed with streaking sleek and colorful vessels, all moving at incredibly high speeds, and trailed by frothy white wakes of foam.

A massive motorboat menagerie, with all the associated bluster and bravado, is on in full force on this sunny summer day off Kalamaki Beach.

Motorboat = A relatively small watercraft propelled by an internal-combustion or electric engine. [REF]

This compound word is so common that its barely worth diving into the lexicon. Floating craft have been around almost since the invention of the wheel, and potentially even before, with waterways providing a key means of human and goods transport for millennia.

As such, every Latin rooted language has a similar term: “batr” in Old Norse, “bot” in Middle English, “bait” in Proto-Germanic, “bateau” in French. The same historical entomology tracing on the ubiquitous “boat” can be executed for other ancient dialects worldwide.

Obviously, it’s hard to have a motorboat without the advent of the motor. Surprisingly, “motor”, the second half of this compound phrase, has been around since well before the internal combustion engine of automotive fame, with which this moniker is now most closely related in modern times.

Originally “motor” was used to describe a person which moves others, often in the motivational sense, from the very obvious Late Latin verb “movere”. From humans, and Gods, in the mid-15th century, the term was expanded to objects which apply force in the mid-17th century, then encompassed actual machinery in the mid-19th century.

The combination of this pair of mundane words into a single expression occurred, not surprisingly, when the two objects of note were jammed together by savvy inventors.

The earliest motorboats were developed in the 1880’s in Europe, with the first prototypes created by Gottlieb Daimler of trucking fame. By the turn of the 20th century, motorboat usage became popular on both sides of the Atlantic, using retrofit automotive engines.

While mechanized ground vehicles became a mandatory-to-own commodity, motorboats were much more of a luxury for the affluent. Aside from some professions like fishing and shipping, this same sentiment applies today. An understandable occurrence, as there are way more roadways in the United States than waterways.

Like many other industries, during the Industrial Revolution, aquatic transport was modernized and improved. There were numerous innovations in the first half of the 1900’s, sometimes hindered by resources being prioritized to the military, but later on leveraging manufacturing techniques pioneered during wartime.

Detachable outboard motors were invented way back in 1908, by Ole Evinrude, whose surname is still relevant in the boating industry.This removable format, with opportunity for retrofitting on an existing vessel, made the sport of motorboating cheaper, and thereby more accessible.

Additional novel advancements continued to be added to boat-specific engines in subsequent years. Water cooling of the single cylinder model in 1909, again by Mr. Evinrude. Die cast aluminum engine block, pioneered by a trio of Johnson brothers in 1921. Industry consolidation in 1928, via Briggs and Stratton, of lawnmower fame, to provide industrial scale manufacturing. All these names are still players in the current aquatic propulsion landscape.

By 1949, the Johnson Sea Horse QD model was released, incorporating essentially all of the elements associated with a modern-day outboard motor: a recoiling cord mechanical starting system, a gear box to allow movement to be toggled from fore to aft, and a separate fuel tank reservoir for safety reasons.

The back half of the 20th century was personified by more major engine players entering the space to keep up with demand, with the associated high-volume assembly line production practices resulting in improved quality.

More recent design changes have been related to minimizing aquatic pollution from the machinery being strapped to the back of boats, modifications primarily driven to appease environmental activists. Plus, immense improvements in horsepower, to appease greedy motorheads everywhere.

Starting from a simple, single-cylinder, 3-horsepower, offering in 1921, over just 40 years, the industry was producing complex, multi-cylinder block, 100-horsepower, monstrosities. While the engine mass increased 10-fold over this time, the disproportionately 30-fold enhancement in thrust, combined with other boat shape improvements, made these next-generation crafts much more powerful and swift in the water.

Government regulations continue to demand safer, quieter, cleaner, more-efficient, outboard motor options. Electric propulsion methods are starting to enter the space, but electricity and water are rarely happy bedfellows. It will be interesting to see how the motorboat industry progresses in the 21st century.

The main differentiation in current motor systems is inboard, with the engine and drive shaft routing directly through the hull, versus outboard, using a detachable unit which is easily connected to the stern. In both cases, thrust is typically provided by rapidly rotating propellers which engage the liquid medium the boat is traveling through.

The broad term motorboat covers a huge range of vessel sizes and shapes, ranging from a single person puttering inflatable to a massive super yacht. However, considering the continued specification of maritime terms, and the English language in generally, standard motorboats are typically those machines that fall in the middle of this size range.

Still diverse in form and function, most modern motorboats enable various recreational watersport pursuits, either proactively like wakeboarding, or passively like angling. There’s also an entire category of engine-enabled craft dedicated to functional labor activities, including tug boats, ferry shuttles, fishing barges, and rescue vessels. The broadest classification even includes random watercraft such as impellor jet skis, rotating wheel paddleboats, and hovering hydroplane skiffs.

As with the means of propulsion, substantial hull material innovations occurred throughout the middle of the 20th century. Wood to metal to composites. This mirrored advances in other modes of transport, often driven by the military needs, where speed and efficiency were key, and cost not a consideration.

But the real engineering for these powerful vessels continues to be based around geometry, rather than thrust.

There are essentially two different types of motorboat hulls: displacement, which push through the water, and planing, which skim across the water. These are basically divergent approaches on how the rigid craft fundamentally interacts with the liquid it’s placed in. In additional, there are numerous designs that utilized the beneficent characteristic of both aerodynamic modes, depending on the rate of forward travel.

Fundamentally, displacement hulls are characterized by a V-shaped bottom with deep draft, plus a sharp bow which sits low in the water. In contrast, planing hulls have a smooth, flat bottom, which can rise to the surface and skims across the water at high speed, thereby reducing friction.

Generally, the lower a vessel sits in the water at rest, the more speed, and therefore power, must be achieved before the boat can achieve full planing, due to water resistance. Which is not always a desirable travel mode, based on the choppiness of the waves.

As with any engineering optimization, there are several competing considerations. Buoyancy. Speed. Stability. Capacity. Steering.

An incredibly sleek craft can easily slice through the water at high speed, but offers up minimal carrying capacity. In contrast, a wide and broad boat has increased buoyancy, but is slow moving and unstable on rough seas.

Fortunately, marine designers have learned to optimize and combine various key elements of hull design. A sharp, V-shaped, frontal section that transitions to a nearly flat transom at the back offers near-optimized performance. This combination can provide a fast and smooth ride in a variety of aquatic circumstances. Provided the hull shaping matches the target speed and size of the craft in question. [REF]

As with any engineering project, there are trade-offs. Angled flat surfaces which increase lift also increase water resistance. Wider hulls that provide more interior space are more prone to volatility at speed.

While many motorboat enthusiasts are looking for maximum velocity, achieved through lower resistance when planing at full power, a displacement hull can offer up many performance benefits, if a slight sacrifice in top speed is acceptable. This category of vessels utilize a much more rounded hull cross-section, with a prominent keel, making them sleek and energy efficient, at the cost of straight-line consistency.

Despite all this engineering optimization, operator skill is a key factor for improving the experience of the boat’s occupants. Considerations such as on-board weight distribution, current water and wind conditions, plus target destination timeline, all come into play.

Even though modern crafts are machine powered, the human factor is still an important part of overall functionality. Counterintuitively, for some hull shapes and wave patterns, a faster rate of travel actually yields a smoother ride. The days of robotic motorboat transport is likely still a way off.

Nowhere are cutting-edge engineering innovations more evident than in the sport of professional powerboat racing. Apparently, with the motorboat moniker sounding too mundane to fully communicate the extreme nature of this pursuit, the “power” prefix was added.

There’s no debate that these high-end racing crafts are powerful, by any definition of the word. It’s interesting to tie the force generated by these modern motorized boats back to the oar-driven vessels of old.

Trireme operators, with their leveraged long oars, but limited range of motion inside the cramped hull, were thought capable of generating 1/8 horsepower per man at peak output. Considering the 170 synchronized participants on a fully outfit trireme, this giant ship had the propulsion equivalent of a 20-horsepower motor.

There’s another rowing vessel of interest to incorporate in this comparison. The coxed eight crew shell, equipped with 8 elite athletes. Considering the pinnacle physique, and mechanized linkage rowing system, for these rigs, each individual can put out over ½ horsepower, albeit over a shorter length of time. With the octet of rowers, plus the coxswain just sitting stoically in the back of the boat bumming a ride, this thrust is equivalent to 4 horsepower.

Interestingly, both the ancient trireme and the current crew shells top out for speed in the 10-knot range. This is suggestive that for human-powered craft, there is an optimization limit with regards to the number of rowers and the size of the boat; more warm bodies providing more energy, but requiring an increasingly large volume to house.

In contrast, standard retail motorboat engines today range from 50 to 200 horsepower, depending on the vessel’s desired application. This is a testament to modern machinery, with a dense chuck of metal replacing the energetic output of several hundred hearty souls with oars.

Another huge step up in thrust, racing powerboats of the P1 Offshore Series use standardized 1,100 horsepower, turbocharged V8, 93-octane fueled, engines. There essentially no comparison between these professional machines and normal retail offerings. Especially since each racing rig is allows a pair of these motor monstrosities.

By this metric, the absurd propulsion of an elite racing powerboat on course, or even a menial motorboat at the local lake, dwarfs any human-powered vessels. Not surprisingly.

Total horsepower output is just one piece of the aquatic adventure puzzle. Additional considerations which factor into performance are mass and aerodynamics for each craft. Normal motorboats top out anywhere between 25 and 50 knots, depending on the intended purpose of the vessel and engine model selected.

Elite powerboats are in a completely different league when it comes to speed. Able to hit a top-end velocity of over 140 knots, the most impressive demonstration of power is the ability to go from stationary to 50 knots in just 2 seconds. That feat of acceleration isn’t going to happen with a rowboat, no matter how many individuals with oars are thrashing around in it. [REF]

While the P1 Offshore powerboat circuit represents the pinnacle of competition, complete with detailed rules, pit crews, corporate sponsors, and a global race calendar, many individuals simply opt for their own open water jaunts.

The amount of technology available to the consumer these days, from engine power, to fuel mix, to lightweight construction, to hull geometry, allows for some crazy speeds to be achieved, regardless of water conditions. Provided one has sufficient cash to fork out for such a luxury.

That thirst for speed, and status, is how scenes like the impromptu racing off the coast of Athens occurs on weekend afternoons in the summer months. Like street racing tricked out cars at night, navigating electric drones through dense urban settings with headsets, or opening up the throttle with a pack of snowmobiles on a flat frozen lake, rich guys, and gals, love their toys. Especially at speed.

Whatever floats one’s boat. Simply choose your vessel wisely, and enjoy the ride.

Details:

Detailed documentation of the Battle of Salamis, along with the historical events leading up to this key military engagement. [REF]
Simple text and pictorial documentation of the key trireme details. [REF]
Summary of the Athens 1896 Olympics where the rowing events never happened. [REF]
Complete guide to an 8-person rowing shell. [REF]
Breakdown of motorboat entomology. [REF]
A complete history of outboard motor advancements on engine-driven boats. [REF]